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About Iran
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Iran |
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Officially Islamic Republic of Iran, republic in southwestern Asia. Iran is
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This name was in general used in the West until 1935,
although the Iranians ... |
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Little is known about Persian carpet making before the 15th century, when
the art was
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The visual arts of Iran. Although in the West this has been traditionally
known as ... |
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Achaemenid art, like Achaemenid religion, was a blend of many elements. In
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Iran Officially
Islamic Republic of Iran, republic in southwestern Asia. Iran is
bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and the
Caspian Sea; on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan; on the south by
the Gulf of Oman, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Persian Gulf; and on the
west by Iraq and Turkey. The area of Iran is about 1,648,195 sq
km. Until the 1930s Iran was known abroad as Persia. The capital and
largest city is Tehran (Teheran).
Physiographic Regions
Iran is
dominated by a central plateau, which is about 1200 m (about 4000 ft)
high and is almost ringed by mountain chains. In the north, paralleling
the southern shore of the
Caspian Sea,
are the
Alburz Mountains.
The highest peak in Iran,
Mount Damavand
(5604 m/18,386 ft), is part of this mountain system. The Caspian Sea, at
28 m (92 ft) below sea level, is the lowest point in Iran. Along the
western border the complex
Zagros Mountains
extend southeast to the region bordering the
Persian Gulf.
Mountains of lower elevation lie to the east of the central plateau.
Except for the relatively fertile plateaus of the northern Iranian
provinces of Azerbaijan, mountain soils are thin, heavily eroded, and
infertile. The narrow Caspian coastal plain, in contrast, is covered
with rich brown forest soil. The only other generally flat area is the
plain of Khuzestan (Khuzistan) in the west.Two great deserts extend over much of central Iran. The Dasht-e Lut is
covered largely with sand and rocks, and the Dasht-e Kavir is covered
mainly with salt. Both deserts are inhospitable and virtually
uninhabited. In the winter and spring small streams flow into the
Dasht-e Kavir, creating little lakes and swamps. In other times of the
year both deserts are extremely arid.
Rivers and Lakes
Most of Iran’s rivers flow only during part of the year, when
precipitation is heaviest. The country’s principal permanent rivers flow
off the mountains on the slopes facing the Caspian Sea, the Persian
Gulf, or the Gulf of Oman. The Karun River, flowing from the Zagros
Mountains to the Shatt al Arab at Khorramshahr, is the country’s main
navigable river. Besides the Caspian Sea, Iran has few large lakes. Most
shrink in size during the hot, dry summer and have a high salt content
because they have no outlet to carry away the salt left when the water
evaporates. The largest water body entirely within Iran is
Lake Orumieh,
in the northwest.
Climate
Iran is divided climatically into three main regions: the extremely
hot coast along the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; the temperate but
arid central highland; and the tableland of the intensely cold Alburz
Mountains. The average temperature range in Tehran on the interior
plateau is -3° to 7° C (27° to 45° F) in January and 22° to 37° C (72°
to 99° F) in July. The average range in Abadan on the Persian Gulf is 7°
to 17° C (44° to 63° F) in January and 28° to 44° C (82° to 112° F) in
July. Average annual precipitation in Tehran is about 250 mm (about 10
in), and in Abadan is less than 200 mm (less than 8 in).
Vegetation and Animal Life
On the semihumid plateaus of Iran, grass cover is used for grazing
livestock. The Zagros Mountains have a semi humid forest cover dominated
by oak, elm, pistachio, and walnut trees. On the seaward slopes of the
Alburz Mountains and on the Caspian plain, vegetation is abundant. In
these areas broadleaf deciduous trees such as ash, elm, oak, and beech
flourish, along with some broadleaf evergreens, ferns, and shrubs. On
the arid plateaus, scrub and cactus growth dominate.
Iran has a wide variety of native wildlife including the rabbit, fox,
wolf, hyena, jackal, leopard, deer, porcupine, ibex, bear, badger,
weasel, and tiger. Pheasants and partridges are found inland; pelicans
and flamingos breed along the Persian Gulf. Sturgeon, whitefish, and
herring inhabit the Caspian Sea.
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Persia
This name was in
general use in the West until 1935, although the Iranians themselves had
long called their country Iran. For convention's sake the name of Persia
is here kept for that part of the country's history concerned with the
ancient Persian Empire until the Arab conquest in the 7th century AD.
For later history, as well as other information on the modern country,
see
Iran.
The First Empire
The Iranian plateau was settled about 1500 BC by Aryan tribes, the
most important of which were the Medes, who occupied the northwestern
portion, and the Persians, who emigrated from Parsua, a land west of
Lake Urmia, into the southern region of the plateau, which they named
Parsamash or Parsumash. The first prominent leader of the Persians was
the warrior chief Hakhamanish, or Achaemenes, who lived about 681 BC.
The Persians were dominated by the Medes until the accession to the
Persian throne in 550 BC of Cyrus the Great. He overthrew the Median
rulers, conquered the kingdom of Lydia in 546 BC and that of Babylonia
in 539 BC and established the Persian Empire as the preeminent power of
the world. His son and successor, Cambyses II, extended the Persian
realm even further by conquering the Egyptians in 525 BC. Darius I, who
ascended the throne in 521 BC, pushed the Persian borders as far
eastward as the Indus River, had a canal constructed from the Nile to
the Red Sea, and reorganized the entire empire, earning the title Darius
the Great. From 499 to 493 BC he engaged in crushing a revolt of the
Ionian Greeks living under Persian rule in Asia, and then launched a
punitive campaign against the European Greeks for supporting the rebels.
His forces were disastrously defeated by the Greeks at the historic
Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. Darius died while preparing a new
expedition against the Greeks; his son and successor, Xerxes I,
attempted to fulfill his plan but met defeat in the great sea engagement
the Battle of Salamis in 480 BC and in two successive land battles in
the following year.
The forays of Xerxes were the last notable attempt at
expansion of the Persian Empire. During the reign of Artaxerxes I, the
second son of Xerxes, the Egyptians revolted, aided by the Greeks;
although the revolt was finally suppressed in 446 BC, it signaled the
first major assault against, and the beginning of the decline of, the
Persian Empire.
Alexander the Great and the Seleucids
Many revolts took place in the next century; the final blow was
struck by Alexander the Great, who added the Persian Empire to his own
Mediterranean realm by defeating the troops of Darius III in a series of
battles between 334 and 331 BC. Alexander effected a temporary
integration of the Persians into his empire by enlisting large numbers
of Persian soldiers in his armies and by causing all his high officers,
who were Macedonians, to wed Persian wives. His death in 323 BC was
followed by a long struggle among his generals for the Persian throne.
The victor in this contest was Seleucus I, who, after conquering the
rich kingdom of Babylon in 312 BC, annexed thereto all the former
Persian realm as far east as the Indus River, as well as Syria and Asia
Minor, and founded the Seleucid dynasty. For more than five centuries
thereafter, Persia remained a subordinate unit within this great realm,
which, after the overthrow of the Seleucids in the 2nd century BC,
became the Parthian Empire.
The Sassanids
In AD 224 Ardashir I, a Persian vassal-king, rebelled against the
Parthians, defeated them in the Battle of Hormuz, and founded a new
Persian dynasty, that of the Sassanids. He then conquered several minor
neighboring kingdoms, invaded India, levying heavy tribute from the
rulers of the Punjab, and conquered Armenia. A particularly significant
accomplishment of his reign was the establishment of Zoroastrianism as
the official religion of Persia. Ardashir was succeeded in 241 by his
son Shapur I, who waged two successive wars against the Roman Empire,
conquering territories in Mesopotamia and Syria and a large area in Asia
Minor. Between 260 and 263 he lost his conquests to Odenathus, ruler of
Palmyra, and ally of Rome. War with Rome was renewed by Narses; his army
was almost annihilated by Roman forces in 297, and he was compelled to
conclude peace terms whereby the western boundary of Persia was moved
from the Euphrates River to the Tigris River and much additional
territory was lost. Shapur II (ruled 309-379) regained the lost
territories, however, in three successive wars with the Romans.
The next ruler of note was Yazdegerd I, who reigned in
peace from 399 to 420; he at first allowed the Persian Christians
freedom of worship and may even have contemplated becoming a Christian
himself, but he later returned to the Zoroastrianism of his forebears
and launched a 4-year campaign of ruthless persecution against the
Christians. The persecution was continued by his son and successor,
Bahram V, who declared war on Rome in 420. The Romans defeated Bahram in
422; by the terms of the peace treaty the Romans promised toleration for
the Zoroastrians within their realm in return for similar treatment of
Christians in Persia. Two years later, at the Council of Dad-Ishu, the
Eastern church declared its independence of the Western church.
Near the end of the 5th century a new enemy, the
barbaric Ephthalites, or “White Huns,” attacked Persia; they defeated
the Persian king Firuz II in 483 and for some years thereafter exacted
heavy tribute. In the same year Nestorianism was made the official faith
of the Persian Christians. Kavadh I favored the communistic teachings of
Mazdak (flourished 5th century), a Zoroastrian high priest, and in 498
was deposed by his orthodox brother Zamasp. With the aid of the
Ephthalites, Kavadh was restored to the throne in 501. He fought two
inconclusive wars against Rome, and in 523 he withdrew his support of
Mazdak and caused a great massacre of Mazdak's followers. His son and
successor, Khosrow I, in two wars with the Byzantine emperor Justinian
I, extended his sway to the Black Sea and the Caucasus, becoming the
most powerful of all Sassanid kings. He reformed the administration of
the empire and restored Zoroastrianism as the state religion. His
grandson Khosrow II reigned from 590 to 628; in 602 he began a long war
against the Byzantine Empire and by 619 had conquered almost all
southwestern Asia Minor and Egypt. Further expansion was prevented by
the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, who between 622 and 627 drove the
Persians back within their original borders. The last of the Sassanid
kings was Yazdegerd III (632-651).
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Persian Carpet
Little is known about Persian
carpet making before the 15th century, when the art was already
approaching a peak. The Mongol invasion of the 13th century had
depressed Persia's artistic life, only partly restored by the
renaissance under the Mongol Il-Khan dynasty (1256-1353). Although the
conquests of Timur Lenk (died 1405) were in most respects disastrous to
Persia, he favoured artisans and spared them to work on his great
palaces in Turkistan.Under Timur's successor, Shah Rokh (died 1447), art
flourished, particularly carpets. Their production exclusively by palace
workshops and court-subsidized looms gave them unity of style; and a
sensitive clientele and lavish royal support guaranteed perfect
materials and the highest skill: sheep were especially bred, dye
plantations were cultivated like flower gardens, and designers and
weavers could win court appointments. These conditions continued under
the Safavids (1501/02-1732).In the 15th century the art of the book,
which had long been considered the supreme artistic accomplishment and
already had behind it centuries of superb achievement, reached a degree
of elegance and sophistication unknown either before or since. The
bindings, frontispieces, chapter headings, and, in the miniatures
themselves, the canopies, panels, brocades, and carpets that furnished
the spaces all received the richest and most elegant patterning. These
beautiful designs were appropriated in various degrees by the other arts
and account in no small measure for the special character of the court
carpets of the period, the variety of colour, the ingenuity and
imaginative range of pattern schemes, and the superlative draftsmanship
that is both lucid and expressive. Among the products inspired by book
illumination were the Medallion carpets of northwest Persia, which
consist of a large centre medallion connected with pendants on the long
axis and with quarter-section designs of the medallion in the corner
areas. First used on ornamental pages and bindings of Persian books, on
carpets this arrangement provided an effective centre and allowed
several layers of designs to overlap because the medallions could cover
multiple vine and flower patterns. The depiction of the latter motifs is
more relaxed than their medieval rendering, and new motifs (inspired by
painting) such as animals, humans, and landscapes began to be worked in.
A special court atelier, possibly located in Soltaniyeh, translated the
most gorgeous illuminations into carpets. Among the 12 or so surviving
examples are the world's most famous carpets, each a masterpiece of
superb design, majestic size, purity and depth of colour, and perfection
of detail. The best known are two carpets from the mosque at Ardabil in
eastern Azerbaijan, Iran, dated 1539-40. The better, skillfully
restored, is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum; the other, reduced
in size, is in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. An extremely rich,
intricate system of stems and blossoms covers a velvety, glowing indigo
field, the whole dominated by a complex gold-star medallion. A near
rival to the Ardabil weaving is the Anhalt Carpet (possibly 19th
century), named after a previous owner, the Duke of Anhalt, and now in
the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. An intricate star
medallion dominates a brilliant yellow field covered with scrolling
arabesques and fluttering cloud bands, framed by a scarlet border. One
of the most beautiful of northwest Persian rugs is the "animal" carpet,
half of which is in Krakaw Cathedral, Poland, and half in the Musée des
Arts Décoratifs. It has the same glowing scarlet and gold as the Anhalt
Carpet but with more subtle halftones (buff on yellow, gray on taupe,
brown on gray) and represents paradise more pictorially. Historically
more important, and in beauty a rival of any, is the great "hunting"
carpet in the Museo Poldi Pezzoli in Milan, inscribed: "It is by the
efforts of Giyath-ud-Din 'Jami that this renowned carpet was brought to
such perfection in the year 1521." A scarlet and gold medallion
dominates a deep blue field, covered with an angular network of
blossoming stems, across which hunters dash after their prey. These
carpets, in the opinion of many, represent the supreme achievement in
the whole field of carpet designing. Nonetheless, other royal workshops
were also producing many beautiful rugs. Particularly costly silk
carpets with figure motifs were woven in Kashan, Persia's silk centre.
Smaller silk medallion carpets were also made there during the later
16th century, their designs mostly variations of the original medallion
system. The court manufacture of Kashan also produced silk carpets with
a decidedly royal style. The distinctive rugs called Vase carpets
(because of the flower vases in their designs) are generally thought to
be Kerman. The pattern usually consists of several lattice systems with
profuse blossoms and foliage. Many of these carpets survive as
fragments; but only a scant 20 are intact, the finest of which is in the
Victoria and Albert Museum. The rugs were apparently not for
export but for court and mosque. Woven on a solid
double warp, their board like stiffness holds them flat to the floor. In
Iran they are still called "Shah 'Abbas" carpets after the monarch of
that name. The typically Persian style widely influenced carpets in
Kurdistan and the Caucasus and also Indian court carpets, as well as
embroideries from Bukhara.Later in the 17th century, increasing luxury
and wealth demanded the production of so many gold- and silver-threaded
carpets that soon they were available in bazaars and exported to Europe,
where more than 200 have been found. Some were made in Kashan, but many
of the finest came from Isfahan. With their high-keyed fresh colours and
opulence, they have affinities with European Renaissance and Baroque
idioms. The Polish nobility ordered many gold-threaded rugs from Kashan,
for Poland and Persia had close relations in the 17th century. Because
there had been a rug- and silk-weaving industry using gold thread in
18th-century Poland, these imported Persian rugs, when first exhibited
at the Paris exposition in 1878, were considered Polish, especially as
nothing quite like them had at the time been found in Persia itself.
They were accordingly dubbed "tapis Polonais," or Polish carpets, and
the name has stuck. The type degenerated in the later 17th century,
materials deteriorating, weaving coarsening, and designs muddling.East
Persian Herat carpets, which were named after their centre of production
and were characterized by their combination of a wine-red field and a
border of clear emerald green with touches of golden yellow, became
known in Europe as the typical Persian carpet. Many of the European
artists of the period owned them, and Anthony Van Dyck and "Velvet"
Brueghel (Jan the Elder), in particular, rendered them with complete
fidelity in datable paintings. Indian princes also were enamoured of
them and acquired them by plunder and purchase alike. Their popularity
resulted in mass production with all its attendant deleterious effects,
and the style finally expired in mediocrity.Throughout 17th-century
Persia, increasing refinement accompanied slackening inspiration. Silk
carpets woven to surround the sarcophagus of Shah 'Abbas II (died 1666)
in the shrine at Qom (in Central Iran) were the last really fine
achievements in Persian weaving. Even Orientalists have mistaken their
finish for velvet; the drawing is beautiful, the colour varied, clear,
and harmonious. The set is dated and signed by a master artist, Ni'mat
Allah of Jusheqan.At the end of the 17th century, nomads and town
dwellers were still making carpets using dyes developed over centuries,
each group maintaining an unadulterated tradition. Not made for an
impatient Western market, these humbler rugs of the "low school" are
frequently beautifully designed and are of good material and technique.
A great rug industry was developed in western Persia in the Soltanabad
district; and from individual towns come beautifully woven rugs such as
Saruks, with their ancient medallion pattern; Serabands, with their
repeating patterns on a ground of silvery rose; and Ferahans, with their
so-called Herati pattern--an all over, rather dense design with a
light-green border on a mordant dye that leaves the pattern in relief.
The earlier Ferahans (two are known, dated to the end of the 18th
century) are on fields of dark lustrous blue with a delicately drawn
open pattern. Later, Ferahans degenerated in colour, material, and
design.
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Iranian Art and Architecture
the visual arts of Iran. Although in the West this has been
traditionally known as Persian culture, the inhabitants of the country
have long called it Iran and themselves Iranians, rather than Persians.
In accordance with popular usage, however, the term Persian will be used
in this article to refer to the period before the advent of Islam in the
7th century AD-that is, the period of the ancient Persian empires-as
well as the preceding prehistoric times.
Ancient Period
Ceramics and clay figurines were the chief artworks of the
prehistoric period, and architecture and sculpture predominated during
the period of the first two Persian empires (6th century BC to 7th
century AD). After the Arab conquest and the introduction of Islam in
the 7th century AD, sculpture was little practiced but architecture
flourished. Painting became a major art in the period from the 13th to
the 17th century. In the 20th century these ancient arts were being
revived, and traditional forms were combined with Western technology and
contemporary materials.
Architecture
Prehistoric
architecture in Iran remains little known but has gradually begun to
come to light since World War II. Among the earliest examples are a
number of small houses of packed mud and mud brick found at several
Neolithic sites in western Iran: Tepe Ali Kosh, Tepe Guran, Ganj Dareh
Tepe, and Hajji Firuz Tepe. These sites show that small villages made up
of one-room houses and storage structures were already established along
the western border of the country by 6000 BC. Excavations at Tal-i
Bakun, near
Persepolis, and Tal-i
Iblis and Tepe Yahya, near Kerman, show that by 4000 BC
buildings with a number of rooms were being erected and grouped into
villages or small towns. All of these structures indicate that the
traditional building techniques using packed mud and sun-dried mud brick
had already been invented. At Shahr-i Sokhta in Seistan an elaborate
Bronze Age palace (circa 2500 BC) was excavated. The plans of these
remains show a steady growth in complexity ending with the establishment
of important commercial centers on the plateau.
At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Iranian tribal
groups, including the Medes and Persians, spread over the plateau and
displaced or absorbed the indigenous inhabitants. The architecture and
crafts of this Iron Age period, which immediately preceded the founding
of the Persian Empire by
Cyrus the Great, have
been brought to light by excavations near Kangavar (Godin Tepe and
Babajan Tepe), near Hamadan (Nush-i Jan Tepe), and at Zendan-i Suleiman
and Tepe Hasanlu in northwestern Iran. These sites revealed for the
first time a tradition of building in which large columnar halls are
used as a central feature. The columns were of wood set on stone slabs,
while the buildings themselves were of uncut stone and mud-brick
construction. Stairways and terraces, along with other features, formed
the prototypes for later developments in the imperial architecture of
Pasargadae and Persepolis. The buildings at Nush-i Jan Tepe and Godin
Tepe are almost certainly Median in origin and are the first structures
excavated belonging to the Medes. These discoveries confirm the
generalized descriptions of battlements and palaces found in the
literary sources, especially of the Greek historian Herodotus.
Achaemenian Period
The first great development of ancient Persian architecture took
place under the Persian Empire of the Achaemenid dynasty, which ruled
from about 550 to 331 BC.Remains of Achaemenian architecture are
numerous, the earliest being ruins at Pasargadae, the capital city of
Cyrus the Great. These ruins include two palaces, a sacred precinct, a
citadel, a tower, and the tomb of Cyrus. The palaces were set in walled
gardens and contained central columnar halls, the largest of which was
37 m (111 ft) in length. The proportions of the principal rooms varied
from square to rectangular; all were lighted by a clerestory. Walls were
constructed of mud brick; foundations, doorways, columns, and dadoes
along the walls were of stone. Columns were capped with stone blocks
carved to represent the forequarters of horses or lions with horns,
placed back to back. The roof was flat and was probably made of wood.
The sacred precinct consisted of a walled court containing two altars
and a rectangular stepped platform. The tower was a tall rectangular
structure built of yellow limestone; a contrasting black limestone was
used for the doorway and two tiers of blind windows. The tomb of Cyrus
was a small gabled stone building placed on a stepped platform. The
surrounding columns were placed there during recent Islamic times.
Darius I built a new capital at Persepolis, to which additions were made
by Xerxes I and Artaxerxes I (reigned 465-425 BC). Three vast terraces
were hewn and leveled out of the rocky site, and on them mud-brick and
stone buildings, similar to those at Pasargadae, were erected. The
buildings at Persepolis differed from those at Pasargadae in a number of
ways. The columnar halls were square, walls were broken by windows and
windowlike niches of stone, and the stone dado was not applied. Doorways
bore a quarter-round cornice ornamented with a petal motif, probably of
Egyptian origin. Column shafts were fluted rather than plain, the bases
and caps were ornamented with floral decorations, and the termination of
the column, called the impost block, took the form of naturalistically
rendered forequarters of bulls or bulls with wings. These buildings had
ceilings of cedar wood, carried on heavy balks or beams that rested on
the stone impost blocks at the tops of the columns.
Other remains of Achaemenian architecture exist at Susa, where Darius I
built a large palace, which was subsequently rebuilt by Artaxerxes II
(reigned 409-358? BC). Royal architecture under the
Achaemenids also
included tombs cut in solid rock, of which the best-known examples are
those at Naqsh-e- Rostam near Persepolis. Little is known of the popular
building practices of the period, but archaeologists believe that the
ordinary dwelling was made of mud brick.
After the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great in
331 BC, and the assumption of power by the Seleucid dynasty, Persian
architecture followed the styles common to the Greek world. The great
Greek-style Temple of Anahita at Kangavar was excavated by the
Archaeological Service of Iran with a view to eventual restoration. The
temple had been destroyed by a severe earthquake in antiquity.
Subsequently, under the Parthian Arsacid dynasty, which lasted from
about 250 BC to AD 224, a small number of buildings was constructed in
native Persian style. The most notable monument of this period is a
palace at Hatra (now in Iraq), dating from the 1st or 2nd century AD and
exemplifying the use of the barrel vault on a grand scale. The vaults,
heavy walls, and small rooms of this palace indicate a continuation of
earlier Assyrian and Babylonian tradition.
Sassanian Period
A great renaissance in architecture took place under the Sassanid
dynasty, which ruled Persia from 224 until the Islamic conquest in 641.
Construction was radically different from that of the Achaemenian
period. Walls were built of burnt brick or small stones bound with
mortar; barrel vaults of brick were used to span rooms and corridors;
and domes were erected over the large halls. The principal features of
the plan of the palaces at Persepolis were adopted, but the various
rooms were enclosed within a single building. Thus, the same building
incorporated a public audience hall, a smaller private audience hall,
and a complex of lesser rooms. Remains of the major monuments of
Sassanian architecture include the ruins of domed palaces at Firuzabad,
Girra, and Sarvestan, and the vast vaulted hall at Ctesiphon. The large
site of Bishapur was systematically excavated in the mid-20th century by
the Archaeological Service of Iran. Palace sites have also been
excavated at Qais, Hira, and Damghan. Other ruins include bridges at
Dizful and Shushtar and a number of small temples built at various
locales for the Zoroastrian worship of fire.
Sculpture
In the first great
period of Persian art, during the reign of the Achaemenids, sculpture
was practiced on a monumental scale. About 515 BC,
Darius I had a vast relief and inscription carved
on a cliff at Behistun. The relief shows him triumphing over his enemies
as Ahura-Mazda, the chief Zoroastrian deity, looks on. The carving was
derived in plan and detail from Assyrian models, but the naturalistic
treatment of the drapery and the eyes was original.At Persepolis, sculpture was an important adjunct to the architecture.
In addition to the sculptured animal capitals on the columns, which were
a dominant feature of the interiors of the buildings, friezes
representing lions were set on the exterior cornices. Doorjambs were
carved with reliefs of the king, and staircases were decorated with
friezes of royal guards and tribute bearers carved in low relief. The
main gateway to the city was flanked by a pair of huge bulls with human
heads, carved in high relief.The decoration of the palace at Susa consisted of stone reliefs in the
style of those at Persepolis, and panels of bricks glazed blue, green,
white, and yellow. The use of glazed bricks continued a tradition that
was first established in Assyria and Babylonia. The glazed-brick panels
at Susa portrayed soldiers, winged bulls, sphinxes, and griffins. The
best known of these panels make up the Frieze of Archers (Louvre,
Paris). Achaemenian sculpture in relief is further exemplified at
Naqsh-e- Rostam, where four royal tombs were hewn out of the rock. At
each tomb the face of the cliff was carved to represent the facade of a
palace; above the palace, figures support a dais on which the king
stands worshiping the gods.After the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great, Greek influence, in
its late, Hellenistic phase, was predominant in the arts of Persia.
Examples include fragments of bronze sculpture found at Shami, and the
Parthian sculptural reliefs at Behistun. The second great period of
Persian art began, as noted, with the reign of the Sassanid dynasty in
AD 224. A single example of sculpture in the round has survived from
this period: a colossal standing figure of a king near Bishapur. A few
statuettes have also survived, but the characteristic sculptural work,
as in Achaemenian times, was the relief cut in rock. The best-known
examples are colossal reliefs at Naqshah Rostam portraying the Persian
kings Ardashir I and Shapur I (reigned 241-72) mounted on horses. A
similar equestrian relief at Taq-i-Bustan represents another Persian
king of this dynasty, Khosrow II. Following the Sassanian period,
sculpture ceased to exist as a major art.
Pottery, Metalwork, and Weaving
The earliest examples
of Persian decorative arts date from the late 7th millennium BC and
consist of animal and human female figures fashioned in clay. The female
figurines, found at Tepe Sarab near
Kermanshah (Bakhtaran), are complex objects
made of many small pieces fitted together on small dowels. The thighs
and breasts of the figures are exaggerated, and the heads are reduced to
small pegs. In contrast to the highly stylized and abstracted
Human figures are
quantities of animal figurines done in an extremely natural style.The second great development in prehistoric art occurred during the 4th
millennium, when a variety of painted pottery styles appeared on the
plateau. The vessels are usually red or buff in color and are covered
with animal figures, often goats, painted in black. The pottery was
found alongside small objects such as stamp seals and small instruments
of copper including pins and chisels. During the 3rd millennium,
burnished gray pottery was manufactured in northeastern Persia along
with a great amount of cast copper objects such as axes, decorated pins,
figurines, and the like. Painted pottery continued to be made in other
parts of the country except in northern Iranian provinces of Azerbaijan,
where black and gray burnished wares appeared, decorated in many
instances with geometric patterns incised into the surface and then
filled with a white paste. About 1300 BC gray burnished pottery appeared
over the whole of the north, perhaps originating in the northeast, and
probably associated with the spreading Indo-Iranian tribes. About 800 BC
painting again revived, with geometric patterns, animals, and human
figures represented.Beginning at the end of the 2nd millennium and continuing to the middle
of the 1st millennium a great florescence of bronze casting occurred
along the southern Caspian mountain zone and in Lorestan. Harness
trappings, horse bits, axes, and votive objects were made in large
quantities and reflected a complex animal style created by combining
parts of animals and fantastic creatures in various forms.Luxurious works of decorative art were produced during the Achaemenian
period, including ornaments and vessels of gold and silver, stone vases,
and engraved gems. A collection of these objects, called the Treasure of
the Oxus, is exhibited at the British Museum, London. Sassanian
metalwork was highly developed, the most usual objects being shallow
silver cups and large bronze ewers, engraved and worked in repoussé. The
commonest themes were court scenes, hunters, animals, birds, and
stylized plants. The largest collection of these vessels is in the
Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg; other examples are in museums in
Paris, London, and New York City.Silk weaving was a flourishing industry under the Sassanid dynasty. The
designs, consisting of symmetrical animal, plant, and hunter patterns
framed in medallions, were imitated throughout the Middle East and also
in medieval Europe. Even after the Arab conquest, Sassanian silks and
metalware continued to be manufactured, and Sassanian designs strongly
influenced artists in Byzantium to the west and as far as Eastern
Turkistan to the east.
Architecture
The
Mosque became the major building type in Iranian
architecture. The established style of vaulted construction was
continued; common features were the pointed arch, the ogee arch, and the
dome on a circular drum. Outstanding examples of early Islamic Iranian
architecture include the Mosque of Baghdad built in 764, the Great
Mosque at Samarra erected in 847, and the early 10th-century mosque at
Nain. The Mongols destroyed much of the early Islamic architecture in
Iran, but after their conquest of Baghdad in 1258, building was resumed
according to Iranian traditions. Subsequently, a number of the most
notable buildings in the history of Iranian architecture were erected.
They include the Great Mosque at Veramin, built in 1322; the Mosque of
the Imam Reza at Mashad-e-Murghab, erected in 1418; and the Blue Mosque
at Tabriz. Other major structures include the mausoleums of the Mongol
conqueror
Tamerlane and his family at
Samarqand,
the Royal Mosque at Mashad-e-Murghab, and the vast madrasahs, or
mosque schools, at Samarqand, all of them erected during the 15th
century.Under the Safavid dynasty (1501-1722), a vast number of mosques,
palaces, tombs, and other structures were built. Common features in the
mosques were onion-shaped domes on drums, barrel-vaulted porches, and
pairs of towering minarets. A striking decoration was the corbel, a
projection of stone or wood from the face of a wall, used in rows and
tiers. These corbels, arranged to appear as series of intersecting
miniature arches, are usually called stalactite corbels. Color was an
important part of the architecture of this period, and the surfaces of
the buildings were covered with ceramic tiles in glowing blue, green,
yellow, and red. The most notable Safavid buildings were constructed at
Esfahan (Isfahan), the capital at that period. The city, laid out in
broad avenues, gardens, and canals, contained palaces, mosques, baths,
bazaars, and caravansaries.
Since the 18th century, the architectural styles of western Europe have
been adopted to an increasing degree in Iran. At the same time,
traditional forms have remained vital, and native and imported elements
have often been combined in the same building. Recently, unadorned steel
and concrete structures, similar to those seen in other parts of the
modern world, have been built as dwellings, public buildings, and
factories.
Painting
Painting in fresco and the illumination of manuscripts were
practiced in Iran at least as early as the Sassanian period, but only fragments
of the work have survived. In Islamic Iran, painting was one of the most
important arts. Manuscripts of the
Qoran in the Arabic Kufic
script were executed on parchment rolls at Al Basrah and Al Kufah at the end of
the 7th century. These manuscripts did not contain painted scenes but depended
for their effect on the beauty of the
Calligraphy. Ornamental calligraphy was widely
practiced in the 8th and 9th centuries. Painting and illumination became
important elements in the decoration of manuscripts in the 9th century. With the
introduction in the 10th century of paper for making books, the forms and
varieties of religious and secular books increased greatly.
In the 12th century, a school of painting at Baghdad became known for
its manuscripts of scientific works, fables, and anecdotes, illustrated
with miniature paintings. In the 13th century the influence of Chinese
landscape painting, introduced after the Mongols came to power in Iran,
became apparent. Paintings of stories, legends, and historical events,
often occupying whole pages and pairs of pages, illustrated books
devoted to poems and world histories. The text was usually written in
Persian rather than Arabic as had previously been customary. In the 14th
century Baghdad and Tabriz were the main centers for painting.
Subsequently, Samarqand, Bukhara, and
Herat also became
important centers. In general the paintings consisted of figural scenes
of hunting, warfare, or palace life and of landscapes of jagged rocks,
single trees, and little streams bordered by flowers. At the beginning
of the 14th century the backgrounds of the paintings were usually red;
later they were more often blue, and at the end of the century gold
backgrounds became common.The best-known Iranian miniature painter was Behzad, the greatest artist
of the end of the Mongol and the beginning of the Safavid periods. He
was head of the academy of painting and calligraphy at Herat until 1506,
when he went to Tabriz and became the royal librarian. Behzad's
paintings are characterized by rich color and realistic figures and
landscapes. He differentiated the figures in group scenes, and his
portraits are strongly individual. Many painters studied with him,
including the celebrated artists Mirak and Sultan Mohammed, and his
style was imitated throughout Iran, Turkistan, and India. Among the few
extant manuscripts illustrated by Behzad are the
History of Tamerlane
(1467), now in the Princeton University Library, and the
Fruit Garden (1487),
a book of poems now in the Egyptian Library, Cairo.Portrait painting became an important art form during the 16th century.
One of the most distinguished portraitists was Ali Reza Abbasi, who
delineated his figures with spare but expressive brush strokes. Most of
his paintings represent single figures, but he also painted realistic
group scenes of pilgrims and dervishes. In the late 16th century and in
the 17th century, monochrome ink drawings brightened with touches of red
and gold replaced the jewel-like polychrome paintings of the earlier
manuscripts. After the 17th century, Iranian artists copied European
paintings and engravings, and the native traditions declined. Paintings
of conventional Iranian themes in brilliant colors on lacquer boxes and
book covers became a handicraft industry in the 19th century, and the
lacquer ware was exported in large quantities to western Europe. This
industry was still flourishing in the late 20th century. Modern
imitations of 16th-century miniature paintings were also common, but no
contemporary national style of painting had emerged.
Decorative Arts
Techniques of weaving, metalwork, and pottery, developed during the
Sassanian period, were practiced throughout subsequent Iranian history. The
weaving of rugs, for which Iran has been especially noted, was encouraged by the
Sassanids and has continued to be an important artistic skill until the present
time. Rugs were made in small villages and in court workshops. The design of
carpets used in mosques or for private prayer usually consisted of a medallion
or arch within a field surrounded by a border, the whole covered with delicate
floral forms. Carpets for secular use might have animal or human figures.
Metalwork was also
important. Fine bronze, brass, and copper wares inlaid with silver and
engraved were made in Mosul and other centers.
Pottery of
outstanding quality was made during the Islamic period, especially in
the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries. The potters of Kashan made
mina ware with delicate polychrome figures, lusterware with metallic
glaze decoration, and wares with strong, dark naturalistic motifs under
a clear or turquoise glaze.
Δ Back to Top
Persian Art
Achaemenid art, like Achaemenid
religion, was a blend of many elements. In describing, with justifiable
pride, the construction of his palace at Susa, Darius says,
The cedar
timber--a mountain by name Lebanon--from there it was brought . . . the
yaka-timber was brought from Gandara and from Carmania. The gold was
brought from Sardis and from Bactria . . . the precious stone
lapis-lazuli and carnelian . . . was brought from Sogdiana. The . . .
turquoise from Chorasmia . . . The silver and ebony . . . from Egypt . .
. the ornamentation from Ionia . . . the ivory . . from Ethiopia and
from Sind and from Arachosia . . . The stone-cutters who wrought the
stone, those were Ionians and Sardians. The goldsmiths . . . were Medes
and Egyptians. The men who wrought the wood, those were Sardians and
Egyptians. The men who wrought the baked brick, those were Babylonians.
The men who adorned the wall, those were Medes and Egyptians.
This was an imperial art on a scale the world had not seen before.
Materials and artists were drawn from all the lands ruled by the Great
King, and thus tastes, styles, and motifs became mixed together in an
eclectic art and architecture that in itself mirrored the empire and the
Persians' understanding of how that empire ought to function. Yet the
whole was entirely Persian. Just as the Achaemenids were tolerant in
matters of local government and custom, as long as Persians controlled
the general policy and administration of the empire, so also were they
tolerant in art so long as the finished and total effect was Persian. At
Pasargadae, the capital of Cyrus the Great and Cambyses in Fars, the
Persian homeland, and at Persepolis, the neighbouring city founded by
Darius the Great and used by all of his successors, one can trace to a
foreign origin almost all of the several details in the construction and
embellishment of the architecture and the sculptured reliefs, but the
conception, planning, and overall finished product are distinctly
Persian and could not have been created by any of the foreign groups who
supplied the king of kings with artistic talent. So also with the small
arts, at which the Persians excelled: fine metal tableware, jewelry,
seal cutting, weaponry and its decoration, and pottery. It has been
suggested that the Persians called on the subject peoples for artists
because they were themselves crude barbarians with little taste and
needed quickly to create an imperial art to match their sudden rise to
political power. Yet excavations at sites from the protohistoric period
show this not to have been the case. Cyrus may have been the leader of
Persian tribes not yet so sophisticated nor so civilized as the
Babylonians or Egyptians, but, when he chose to build Pasargadae, he had
a long artistic tradition behind him that was probably already
distinctly Iranian and that was in many ways the equal of any. Two
examples suffice: the tradition of the columned hall in architecture and
fine gold work. The former can now be seen as belonging to an
architectural tradition on the Iranian Plateau that extended back
through the Median period to at least the beginning of the 1st
millennium BC. The rich Achaemenid gold work, which inscriptions suggest
may have been a specialty of the Medes, was in the tradition of the
delicate metalwork found in Iron Age II times at Hasanlu and still
earlier at Marlik. In its carefully proportioned and well-organized
ground plan, rich architectural ornament, and magnificent decorative
reliefs, Persepolis, primarily the creation of Darius and Xerxes, is one
of the great artistic legacies of the ancient world.
Δ Back to Top
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Safari to Iran (Tehran-
Shiraz-Mashad)
Safari to Iran (Tehran-Goosfandsara)
Safari to Iran (Tehran-Yazd- Kerman)
Safari to Iran (Kashan- Isfahan-
Khor)
Safari to Iran (Rineh- Damavand)
Safari to Iran (Tehran- Rineh)
Safari to Iran (Tehran- Damavand)
Safari to Iran (Isfahan- Shiraz-
Tehran)
Safari to Iran (Mashad- Yazd-
Isfahan)
Tour Summary (Tehran- Shiraz)
Tour Summary (Tabriz, Hamedan)
Tour Summary (Kerman, Isfahan)
Yazd
Cities of Iran
Home
About Iran
Perspolis Tour
Pasargade tour
Safari to Bishapur - Iran
Safari Photo Gallery
Iran Photo safari 1
Iran Photo safari 2
Iran Photo safari 3
Iran Photo safari 4
Iran Photo safari 5
Iran Photo safari 6
Persian Fallow Deer
Shiraz
Isfahan
Itineraries
Wild Boar
Kerman
Mashad
Tehran
Hunting with buckhound
Hunting Gazelle in Iran
Wild Boar Hunting in Iran
Tour Summary (Hamadan, Ahvaz)
Tour Summary (Kashan, Yazd)
Tour Summary (Kerman, Shiraz)
Persian Gazelle hunting in Iran
Safari to Mehdi-Abad Iran for hunting
Hamedan
Old Itineraries
water supplying for gazelles in Iran
Tour Summary (Ahvaz, Isfahan)
safari services
Iran safari Hunt Racing
Fallow Deer in Iran
Tour to Damavand Mountain
Damavand Mountain Climbing
Why Iran Safari
contact to Iran safari
First Persian Deer Hunting
Iran safari 1
Iran safari map
Wild Boar A ancient Stories in Iran
Iran safari 2
Iran safari itineraries
Royal Hunting Buckhound
Iran safari 3
contact to iranjasminco
Hunting Wild Boar in Iran
Iran safari 4
Iran safari 21
Persian Wild Boar Hunting in Iran
Iran safari 5
Iran safari 22
Iran climate and weather
Iran safari 6
Iran safari 23
Iran forest and jungles for hunting
Iran safari 7
Iran safari 24
Iran bird shooting forests
Iran hunting photo safari
Iran safari 25
Iran safari 8
Iran safari 9
Iran safari 26
Iran hunting photo safari
Iran safari 10
Iran safari 27
Iran hunting photo safari
Iran safari 11
Iran safari 28
Iran hunting photo safari
Iran safari 12
Iran safari 29
Iran hunting photo safari
Iran safari 30
Iran safari 13
Iran hunting photo safari
Iran safari 14
Iran safari 15
Iran safari 16
Iran safari 17
Iran safari 18
Iran safari 19
Iran safari 20
Iran safari 31
Iran safari 32
Iran safari 33
Iran safari 34
Iran safari 35
Iran safari 36
Iran Safari 37
Iran safari 38
Iran safari 39
Iran safari 40
Iran safari 41
Iran safari 42
Iran safari 43
Iran safari 44 |
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